4; 95% CI 1.5–7.8) (Table 2). Other baseline variables were not associated with the development

of rash-associated hepatotoxicity; these variables included CD4 cell count ≥250 cells/μL, age, BMI, HIV VL, concomitant anti-tuberculosis therapy and WHO Crizotinib ic50 clinical stage. This analysis was repeated for each country separately and the same baseline transaminase association described above was observed (data not shown). CD4 count ≥250 cells/μL was not significantly associated with the development of rash-associated hepatotoxicity in any country but the association trended in different directions in Zambia (OR 0.5; 95% CI 0.01–3.8) and Thailand (OR 2.3; 95% CI 0.4–10.3). As abnormal baseline transaminases were a strong predictor of rash-associated hepatotoxicity, we also repeated this analysis excluding the 121 women with abnormal baseline transaminases. Among women with normal baseline transaminases (n=699), CD4 count ≥250 cells/μL was not associated with the development of rash-associated hepatotoxicity AZD2281 mouse (OR 1.9; 95% CI 0.5–5.7). When we stratified baseline CD4 count by 50 cells/μL increments, women with the lowest CD4 counts (0–49 cells/μL) also had the highest rates (6.5%) of rash-associated hepatotoxicity (Fig. 2). However, rates of rash-associated hepatotoxicity also increased across the highest baseline CD4

count strata (200–249, 250–299 and ≥300 cells/μL) compared with women with baseline CD4 counts of 50–199 cells/μL (Cochran-Armitage trend test, P=0.004), suggesting a J-curve distribution of risk for rash-associated hepatotoxicity according to the CD4 count at which nevirapine-based ART was initiated. Compared with baseline CD4 counts of 50–199 cells/μL, a baseline CD4 count <50 cells/μL (aOR 3.7; 95% CI 1.0–13.5) and a baseline CD4 count ≥200 cells/μL (aOR 3.9; 95%

CI 1.3–12.6) were both associated with the development of rash-associated hepatotoxicity after adjusting Interleukin-3 receptor for baseline transaminase levels and country. A similar association was not observed with CD4 cell count and severe hepatotoxicity or severe rash. Three women (0.4% of total participants) died with symptoms suggestive of fatal hepatotoxicity (Table 3). All three women had severe hepatotoxicity with additional symptoms (one woman also had rash-associated hepatotoxicity) and baseline CD4 counts <100 cells/μL, and were receiving anti-tuberculosis therapy. Two of these women were receiving four-drug anti-tuberculosis therapy that included rifampicin which had been prescribed by a nonstudy clinic unbeknown to the study clinician. Among women initiating nevirapine-based ART, severe hepatotoxicity and rash-associated hepatotoxicity were associated with elevated baseline transaminase levels. We did not observe an association for either severe hepatotoxicity or rash-associated hepatotoxicity with baseline CD4 count ≥250 cells/μL compared with CD4 count <250 cells/μL.

The need for complex communication might be one of the reasons why in eukaryotes, the SRP receptor consists of two subunits: SR-α and SR-β. The SR-β subunit is an integral membrane protein, which tethers SR-α tightly onto the membrane. Bacteria lack the SR-β homologue. Simpler bacterium such as E. coli Galunisertib does not require complex extracellular biology, and its SR-α homologue FtsY does not have a membrane insertion structure to tether it tightly

onto the membrane. However, S. coelicolor has more complex extracellular biology, which probably requires a more efficient protein translocation system. The S. coelicolor SRP receptor is still a single protein, but it has a membrane insertion structure to tether it tightly to the membrane. Phenotypically, the S. coelicolor SRP receptor represents an intermediate between the widely studied E. coli SRP receptor and the more complex eukaryotic SRP receptor. It would be interesting to investigate whether the S. coelicolor SRP system evolutionarily represents an intermediate between the primitive prokaryotic SRP system and the more complex eukaryotic SRP system. This work was selleck kinase inhibitor supported by the National Science Foundation of China (No. 30870033). Please note: Wiley-Blackwell is not responsible for the content

or functionality of any supporting materials supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing material) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article. “
“Identification of Listeria species via a molecular method is critical for food safety and clinical diagnosis. In this study, an assay integrating real-time quantitative PCR (Q-PCR) with high-resolution melting (HRM) curve analysis

was developed and assessed for rapid identification of six Listeria species. The ssrA gene, which encodes a transfer-messenger RNA (tmRNA) is much conserved and common to all bacterial phyla, contains a variable domain in Listeria spp. Therefore, Q-PCR and a HRM profile were applied to characterize this gene. Fifty-three Listeria species and 45 non-Listeria species were detected using one primer set, with an accuracy of 100% in reference to conventional methods. There was a 93.3% correction rate to 30 artificially contaminated samples. Thus, Q-PCR with melting profiling analysis proved able to identify Listeria species accurately. Consequently, this study demonstrates that the assay we developed is a functional tool for rapidly identifying six Listeria species, and has the potential for discriminating novel species food safety and epidemiological research. The genus Listeria, a group of Gram-positive, motile, nonsporulating bacteria, contains six classical members, namely Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria welshimeri, Listeria seeligeri, Listeria ivanovii, Listeria innocua, and Listeria grayi, and two recently identified species, Listeria marthii and Listeria rocourtiae (Hain et al., 2006; Liu, 2006; Zhang et al., 2007; den Bakker et al., 2010; Graves et al., 2010; Leclercq et al., 2010).

The need for complex communication might be one of the reasons why in eukaryotes, the SRP receptor consists of two subunits: SR-α and SR-β. The SR-β subunit is an integral membrane protein, which tethers SR-α tightly onto the membrane. Bacteria lack the SR-β homologue. Simpler bacterium such as E. coli this website does not require complex extracellular biology, and its SR-α homologue FtsY does not have a membrane insertion structure to tether it tightly

onto the membrane. However, S. coelicolor has more complex extracellular biology, which probably requires a more efficient protein translocation system. The S. coelicolor SRP receptor is still a single protein, but it has a membrane insertion structure to tether it tightly to the membrane. Phenotypically, the S. coelicolor SRP receptor represents an intermediate between the widely studied E. coli SRP receptor and the more complex eukaryotic SRP receptor. It would be interesting to investigate whether the S. coelicolor SRP system evolutionarily represents an intermediate between the primitive prokaryotic SRP system and the more complex eukaryotic SRP system. This work was PFT�� in vivo supported by the National Science Foundation of China (No. 30870033). Please note: Wiley-Blackwell is not responsible for the content

or functionality of any supporting materials supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing material) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article. “
“Identification of Listeria species via a molecular method is critical for food safety and clinical diagnosis. In this study, an assay integrating real-time quantitative PCR (Q-PCR) with high-resolution melting (HRM) curve analysis

was developed and assessed for rapid identification of six Listeria species. The ssrA gene, which encodes a transfer-messenger RNA (tmRNA) is click here conserved and common to all bacterial phyla, contains a variable domain in Listeria spp. Therefore, Q-PCR and a HRM profile were applied to characterize this gene. Fifty-three Listeria species and 45 non-Listeria species were detected using one primer set, with an accuracy of 100% in reference to conventional methods. There was a 93.3% correction rate to 30 artificially contaminated samples. Thus, Q-PCR with melting profiling analysis proved able to identify Listeria species accurately. Consequently, this study demonstrates that the assay we developed is a functional tool for rapidly identifying six Listeria species, and has the potential for discriminating novel species food safety and epidemiological research. The genus Listeria, a group of Gram-positive, motile, nonsporulating bacteria, contains six classical members, namely Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria welshimeri, Listeria seeligeri, Listeria ivanovii, Listeria innocua, and Listeria grayi, and two recently identified species, Listeria marthii and Listeria rocourtiae (Hain et al., 2006; Liu, 2006; Zhang et al., 2007; den Bakker et al., 2010; Graves et al., 2010; Leclercq et al., 2010).

The need for complex communication might be one of the reasons why in eukaryotes, the SRP receptor consists of two subunits: SR-α and SR-β. The SR-β subunit is an integral membrane protein, which tethers SR-α tightly onto the membrane. Bacteria lack the SR-β homologue. Simpler bacterium such as E. coli Forskolin nmr does not require complex extracellular biology, and its SR-α homologue FtsY does not have a membrane insertion structure to tether it tightly

onto the membrane. However, S. coelicolor has more complex extracellular biology, which probably requires a more efficient protein translocation system. The S. coelicolor SRP receptor is still a single protein, but it has a membrane insertion structure to tether it tightly to the membrane. Phenotypically, the S. coelicolor SRP receptor represents an intermediate between the widely studied E. coli SRP receptor and the more complex eukaryotic SRP receptor. It would be interesting to investigate whether the S. coelicolor SRP system evolutionarily represents an intermediate between the primitive prokaryotic SRP system and the more complex eukaryotic SRP system. This work was click here supported by the National Science Foundation of China (No. 30870033). Please note: Wiley-Blackwell is not responsible for the content

or functionality of any supporting materials supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing material) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article. “
“Identification of Listeria species via a molecular method is critical for food safety and clinical diagnosis. In this study, an assay integrating real-time quantitative PCR (Q-PCR) with high-resolution melting (HRM) curve analysis

was developed and assessed for rapid identification of six Listeria species. The ssrA gene, which encodes a transfer-messenger RNA (tmRNA) is Fenbendazole conserved and common to all bacterial phyla, contains a variable domain in Listeria spp. Therefore, Q-PCR and a HRM profile were applied to characterize this gene. Fifty-three Listeria species and 45 non-Listeria species were detected using one primer set, with an accuracy of 100% in reference to conventional methods. There was a 93.3% correction rate to 30 artificially contaminated samples. Thus, Q-PCR with melting profiling analysis proved able to identify Listeria species accurately. Consequently, this study demonstrates that the assay we developed is a functional tool for rapidly identifying six Listeria species, and has the potential for discriminating novel species food safety and epidemiological research. The genus Listeria, a group of Gram-positive, motile, nonsporulating bacteria, contains six classical members, namely Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria welshimeri, Listeria seeligeri, Listeria ivanovii, Listeria innocua, and Listeria grayi, and two recently identified species, Listeria marthii and Listeria rocourtiae (Hain et al., 2006; Liu, 2006; Zhang et al., 2007; den Bakker et al., 2010; Graves et al., 2010; Leclercq et al., 2010).

, 2007). Cloning and the heterogeneous expression of crtI from Rba. azotoformans were performed to understand the product pattern of CrtI. A 1557 bp crtI gene was amplified via PCR from the Rba. azotoformans CGMCC 6086 genome with primers Ra-If and Ra-Ir (Table 1). A 518-amino acid protein was encoded with a predicted molecular

mass of 57.28 kDa. The crtI gene was inserted into pET22b and transformed into E. coli BL21 (DE3). The ratio of CrtI to total Natural Product Library E. coli protein was approximately 7–10% after induction with IPTG. The subunit molecular mass of 57 kDa determined via SDS-PAGE (Fig. 3) was consistent with the predicted molecular mass. The product pattern of CrtI from

Rba. azotoformans was examined in vivo by co-transforming plasmid pET22b-I with plasmid pACYCDuet-EB into the E. coli BL21 (DE3). The transformant acquired a red color in LB culture after induction with IPTG. After cultivation for 5 h in LB medium with 0.5 mM IPTG, the recombinant E. coli produced three carotenoids (Fig. 4a) identified by molecular mass and absorption spectra as neurosporene, lycopene, and 3,4-didehydrolycopene Forskolin concentration (Fig. S3). Neurosporene has a relative molecular mass of 538.4 and three absorption maxima at 416, 440, and 469 nm. Lycopene has a relative molecular mass of 536.4 and three absorption maxima at 444, 472, and 504 nm. Meanwhile, 3,4-didehydrolycopene has a relative molecular mass of 534.4 and three absorption maxima at 469, 496, and 528 nm. After cultivation for 24 h, the relative C59 contents of neurosporene and lycopene in recombinant E. coli were approximately 23% and 75%, respectively, whereas 3,4-didehydrolycopene almost disappeared (Fig. 4b). This in vivo result showed that CrtI from Rba. azotoformans

CGMCC 6086 could produce three-step desaturated neurosporene and four-step desaturated lycopene as major products, together with small amounts of five-step desaturated 3,4-didehydrolycopene. The present study is the first to report that 3,4-didehydrolycopene could be produced by CrtI from Rhodobacter. CrtI would be a three-step phytoene desaturase in situ because carotenoids of the spheroidene series were synthesized in Rba. azotoformans CGMCC 6086. Therefore, the formation of lycopene and 3,4-didehydrolycopene in recombinant E. coli were probably due to neurosporene accumulation caused by the lack of hydroxyneurosporene synthase (CrtC) and CrtI kinetics. In a crtC deletion mutant of Rba. azotoformans CGMCC 6086 obtained via EMS and LiCl mutagenesis, carotenoid products contained approximately 90% neurosporene and 10% lycopene (data not shown). The kinetics could also affect product patterns of CrtI. CrtI from Rvi. gelatinosus and P.

At the beginning of the experiment, the EMG electrode location was determined during contraction to isolate one motor unit in the recorded activity. Surface EMG recordings are non-invasive, and do not cause any damage to muscle tissue, which in turn influences the motor unit potential (De Luca et al., 2006). Nevertheless, only the largest motor units with the lowest firing thresholds could be investigated. Visual feedback (EMG activity was displayed on an oscilloscope) and auditory feedback (a sound was triggered each time the motor unit

potential occurred in the EMG) helped the subjects to maintain a constant motor unit discharge of ∼10 Hz for studying the effects of TMS on the motor unit firing rate (Bawa & Lemon, 1993). TMS was delivered through a figure-of-eight coil (70 mm), generating postero-anterior MAPK inhibitor (PA) currents in the primary motor cortex (with the handle orientated in an anterior, antero-medial or antero-lateral axis depending on the subject), at the optimal site CHIR-99021 research buy (hot spot) for evoking an MEP in the contra-lateral

FDI EMG. The coil was connected to a Bistim module combining two stimulators (Magstim 200; Magstim Company Ltd, Whitland, UK), to provide paired pulses at a 2-ms interval through the same coil. The 2-ms interval, known to evoke strong SICI (Fisher et al., 2002; Roshan et al., 2003), was kept constant throughout the experiment. The optimal coil position was marked on the scalp and, for protocol 2, TMS was assisted by the navigated brain stimulation (NBS) system (Nexstim, Helsinki, Finland), using a standard magnetic resonance imaging brain scan of each individual (http://www.nexstim.com). The NBS system uses a sophisticated algorithm to predict the actual location of the stimulating electric fields in the cortex, and to keep the coil location constant throughout the experiment. TMS intensity was adjusted in relation to the resting motor threshold (RMT), which was the lowest intensity for evoking an MEP of ∼50 μV in at least 50% of trials. The method

is explained fully in Pierrot-Deseilligny & Burke (2005). Briefly, EMG activity was displayed on an oscilloscope to monitor the shape of the investigated motor unit during the experiment. In parallel, the EMG signal was conveyed to a window discriminator with variable mafosfamide trigger levels, which converted the motor unit potential into a standard pulse (3-ms duration, 5-V amplitude); the trigger level position was constant throughout the experiment (Kirkwood & Sears, 1978). Each time the motor unit potential occurred in the EMG activity, the window discriminator delivered a pulse. The pulses were conveyed to a computer, which generated a histogram of the discharge (0.5-ms bin width), according to the latency after a delay R1 relative to the previous pulse; 0 ms in the PSTH thus corresponds to the delay R1.

At the beginning of the experiment, the EMG electrode location was determined during contraction to isolate one motor unit in the recorded activity. Surface EMG recordings are non-invasive, and do not cause any damage to muscle tissue, which in turn influences the motor unit potential (De Luca et al., 2006). Nevertheless, only the largest motor units with the lowest firing thresholds could be investigated. Visual feedback (EMG activity was displayed on an oscilloscope) and auditory feedback (a sound was triggered each time the motor unit

potential occurred in the EMG) helped the subjects to maintain a constant motor unit discharge of ∼10 Hz for studying the effects of TMS on the motor unit firing rate (Bawa & Lemon, 1993). TMS was delivered through a figure-of-eight coil (70 mm), generating postero-anterior Selleck STA-9090 (PA) currents in the primary motor cortex (with the handle orientated in an anterior, antero-medial or antero-lateral axis depending on the subject), at the optimal site 3 MA (hot spot) for evoking an MEP in the contra-lateral

FDI EMG. The coil was connected to a Bistim module combining two stimulators (Magstim 200; Magstim Company Ltd, Whitland, UK), to provide paired pulses at a 2-ms interval through the same coil. The 2-ms interval, known to evoke strong SICI (Fisher et al., 2002; Roshan et al., 2003), was kept constant throughout the experiment. The optimal coil position was marked on the scalp and, for protocol 2, TMS was assisted by the navigated brain stimulation (NBS) system (Nexstim, Helsinki, Finland), using a standard magnetic resonance imaging brain scan of each individual (http://www.nexstim.com). The NBS system uses a sophisticated algorithm to predict the actual location of the stimulating electric fields in the cortex, and to keep the coil location constant throughout the experiment. TMS intensity was adjusted in relation to the resting motor threshold (RMT), which was the lowest intensity for evoking an MEP of ∼50 μV in at least 50% of trials. The method

is explained fully in Pierrot-Deseilligny & Burke (2005). Briefly, EMG activity was displayed on an oscilloscope to monitor the shape of the investigated motor unit during the experiment. In parallel, the EMG signal was conveyed to a window discriminator with variable Astemizole trigger levels, which converted the motor unit potential into a standard pulse (3-ms duration, 5-V amplitude); the trigger level position was constant throughout the experiment (Kirkwood & Sears, 1978). Each time the motor unit potential occurred in the EMG activity, the window discriminator delivered a pulse. The pulses were conveyed to a computer, which generated a histogram of the discharge (0.5-ms bin width), according to the latency after a delay R1 relative to the previous pulse; 0 ms in the PSTH thus corresponds to the delay R1.

In 20 BD patients and controls neither parvovirus B19 DNA was detected nor bacterial DNA. Viral DNA of Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus (CMV) and human herpes virus (HHV)8 was detected more frequently VX-809 chemical structure in the BD group,

whereas HSV DNA was only found in the controls, indicating that stomatitis might be caused by HSV. Conclusion:  Although no significant association of BD was detected with a single pathogen, our findings suggest that detection of HSV DNA or Chlamydiae would rather argue against classic BD. Whether there is a discriminative potential of the tested immune mediators/receptors has to be elucidated in further studies. “
“This study was designed to evaluate iron deficiency as a predisposing factor for resistant Tofacitinib mouse oral aphthosis in patients with Behcet’s disease (BD). In a case control study 220 consecutive BD patients with oral aphthosis were enrolled.

All patients had been treated for at least 3 months. They were divided into two groups according to their treatment response (75 patients in the Case and 145 in the Control group). Demographic and clinical characteristics of the disease, serum iron, total iron binding capacity and serum ferritin were determined in each patient. We used independent t-test and Mann–Whitney U-test to compare the quantitative variables and chi-square test for qualitative variables. Odds ratio (OR) and confidence interval at 95% (95% CI) were calculated for each item. There was no significant

difference between the two groups in demographics or clinical characteristics of the disease. We found iron deficiency in 72 patients (32.7%, 95% CI: 6.2), higher in the Case group than Control (39.2% vs. 30.1%; P = 0.17). Despite the higher frequency of iron deficiency in men (26.8% vs. 14.5%), the difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.09). Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that none of the iron deficiency or sex variables could predict the development of resistant oral aphthosis. The OR for iron deficiency was 1.52 (95% CI: 0.81–2.86) and for male sex was 1.04 (95% CI: 0.56–1.91). Despite the higher frequency of iron deficiency in BD patients with resistant oral aphthosis, we were not able to attribute this resistance of to this deficiency. “
“To estimate the prevalence of osteoarthritis (OA) of different joints in rural areas of Iran. From five villages of Tuyserkan County, 1565 individuals were randomly selected and were interviewed to complete the Community Oriented Programme for Control of the Rheumatic Diseases (COPCORD) Core Questionnaire. Among these cases 1192 cases with rheumatic complaints were examined by a rheumatologist and laboratory and radiology tests were performed if necessary for the diagnosis. Definition of OA in various joints, were based on American College of Rheumatology (ACR) criteria.

, 2006). The regulation of iron uptake is important, as in excess iron is toxic. Iron acts as a corepressor of gene expression with Fur- and DtxR-type proteins (Pennella & Giedroc, 2005). In the context of an infection, upon colonization, bacteria will most likely encounter an iron-restricted environment, but if successful, will release iron and effect a transition to an iron-replete environment (Ganz, 2009). Given the important role of iron as a nutrient and gene regulator,

we hypothesize that the transition from iron-starved to iron-replete is an important marker during an infection that may trigger Dabrafenib adaptive responses in bacteria. The hypothesis is supported by the finding that Staphylococcus aureus secretes proteins that interfere with the immune system in response to the acquisition of excess haem (Torres et al., 2007). Infections of the urinary tract (UTIs) are the most common bacterial infections of humans (Foxman,

2003), and uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) are the leading cause of these infections (Foxman & Brown, 2003). Of particular concern are infections with antibiotic-resistant bacteria, recurrent UTIs and infections that ascend to the kidney (Wagenlehner et al., 2009). The understanding of recurrent UPEC UTIs has made significant advances in recent years with the discovery of intracellular bacterial (or biofilm-like) communities (IBCs) and quiescent intracellular ALK inhibition reservoirs (QIRs) (Rosen et al., 2007; Wiles et al., 2008). During acute infection, some UPEC cells invade cells of the bladder urothelium, where they may lie dormant in QIRs or begin to replicate and exist as IBCs. Bacteria in the form of QIRs and IBCs are able to resist antibiotic therapies that achieve their clinical goal of resolving symptoms and sterilizing the urine (Rubin et al., 1992). Failure

to eradicate the intracellular uropathogen leaves the patient open to a recurrence of the disease when bacteria exit from the IBC at a later time (Wright & Hultgren, 2006; Wiles et al., 2008). For UPEC, mutants compromised in iron acquisition are either nonpathogenic or poorly able to compete Montelukast Sodium (Torres et al., 2001; Hagan & Mobley, 2009). A transcriptomic view of a UPEC infection of murine bladders clearly depicts the battle for iron, with IBC bacteria upregulating iron acquisition genes and bladder cells associated with IBCs upregulating genes that will restrict iron (Reigstad et al., 2007). Biofilms are communities of bacteria found at interfacial surfaces encased within a polymeric matrix, often of bacterial origin. Biofilms play a clear role in many infectious diseases and particularly in association with device-related infections and mucosal infections (Lynch & Robertson, 2008). In UTIs, biofilms are involved in the colonization of the bladder via urinary catheters and also in the formation of IBCs (Hatt & Rather, 2008).

The question on happiness with the last pregnancy was rather simplistic and was not adapted from validated scales. Finally, the sample population was limited to adult women ≥18 years of age, which led to the exclusion of adolescent girls who are at particular high risk of

unintended pregnancies [8]. Our findings have important implications for the healthcare management of HIV-positive women which providers BAY 73-4506 in vivo and policy makers should consider. Healthcare providers ought to consider adding a discussion about pregnancy planning, healthy pre-conception lifestyle, and contraception into routine HIV care to support safer pregnancies, maximizing the health of the women and their partners and protecting future children by reducing vertical transmission. In Canada, we are in the process of developing national guidelines on pregnancy planning as well as provincial and national HIV Fertility Programs [20,30,31]. We hope that our research and ongoing projects will assist HIV-positive individuals, policy makers and healthcare providers globally to develop their programmes for safer, supportive pregnancy and family planning for HIV-positive individuals in their communities. We are indebted to the frontline

AIDS Service Organization staff and research co-ordinators for their dedication to this project; to the members of the Project Advisory Committee for their expertise; and to the participants whose involvement made this study possible. “
“All HIV/hepatitis C virus (HCV)-coinfected patients with chronic HCV infection and ≥ F2 fibrosis should be considered for HCV therapy. This

study TSA HDAC research buy aimed to determine the rate of HCV treatment uptake among coinfected patients in Europe. EuroSIDA patients with viraemic HCV infection were included in the study. Poisson regression was used to identify temporal changes and regional differences Diflunisal in HCV treatment uptake. A total of 1984 patients were included in the study, with a median follow-up time of 168 months [interquartile range (IQR) 121–204 months]. To date, 501 (25.3%) HIV/HCV-coinfected patients have received HCV therapy. Treatment incidence rose from 0.33 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.16–0.50] per 100 person-years of follow-up (PYFU) in 1998 to 5.93 (95% CI 4.49–7.38) in 2007, falling to 3.78 (95% CI 2.50–5.07) in 2009. After adjustment, CD4 cell count > 350 cells/μL [incidence rate ratio (IRR) 1.33 (95% CI 1.06–1.67) vs. CD4 count 200−350 cells/μL] and ≥F2 liver fibrosis [IRR 1.60 (95% CI 1.14–2.25; P = 0.0065) vs. < F2 fibrosis] were predictors of anti-HCV treatment initiation. However, 22% of patients who remain untreated for HCV, with fibrosis data available, had ≥F2 fibrosis and should have been considered for treatment, while only 36% of treated patients had ≥F2 fibrosis. Although treatment incidence for HCV has increased, there remain a large proportion of patients indicated for treatment who have yet to be treated.