The modifications included changes of the trap and temperature pu

The modifications included changes of the trap and temperature purge/retention program of the gas chromatograph. The traps used in both systems were Vocarb® 3000, with a trap temperature of − 5 °C for the custom-made system and ambient temperature for the Tekmar system. The desorption temperature

check details was 225 °C. The systems were connected to gas chromatographs with electron-capture detectors (Varian 3800). Separations of halocarbons were performed using an Agilent DB-624 wide-bore column (60 m, I.D. 0.32 mm, film 1.80 μm). The chromatographic conditions were a starting temperature of 30 °C at a hold time of 7.23 min, followed by an increase in temperature to 55 °C at a rate of 5 °C min− 1, raised to 69 °C at a rate of 2 °C min− 1, raised to 100 °C at a rate of 5 °C min− 1, raised to 140 °C at a rate of 10 °C min− 1 and raised to 255 °C at a rate of 30 °C min− 1, with a hold time of 1.50 min. The systems were calibrated with external standards

of CH3I (Fluka (> 99.5%), CH3CH2I (Merck, 99%), CH3CHICH2 (Fluka, > 98%), CH2Br2 (Merck, 99%), CH3CH2CH2I (Aldrich, 99%), CHBrCl2 (Fluka, > 98%), CH2ClI (Fluka, > 97%), CH3CHICH2CH3 (Fluka, > 99%), CHBr2Cl (Fluka, > 97%), CH2ICH2CH2CH3 (Fluka, > 99%), CH2BrCH2Br (unknown), CH2BrI (Fluka), CHBr3 (Merck, > 98%) and CH2I2 (Merck, > 98%) diluted from a stock click here solution in methanol (Sigma-Aldrich, suitable for purge and trap analysis) in seawater to give final concentrations of pmol L− 1 in the purge chamber. The systems were calibrated with standards every 5 days, and no drift was observed during the duration of the cruise. The absolute detection limits for the compounds are in the fmol L− 1 range (Supplementary material), and the overall precision for the biogenic halocarbons were between PDK4 1 and 5%. Halocarbon data from the OSO07 expedition is archived at the PANGEA information system, http://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.779087. Water samples

were collected for chlorophyll a, photosynthetic pigments and microscopic analysis. All filtrations were completed using low (⅓ atm) vacuum through 25 mm Whatman GF/F filters. Samples for chlorophyll were placed in 7 mL 90% acetone, extracted for at least 24 h in cold (~− 10 °C) dark conditions, the filters removed, and the extracts read before and after acidification on a Turner Designs Model 700 fluorometer (Knap et al., 1996). The fluorometer was calibrated before and after the cruise using commercially purified chlorophyll a (Sigma), which in turn was checked using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Samples for pigment analysis were collected and filtered, wrapped in aluminum foil and frozen at − 80 °C. Samples were returned to the laboratory frozen and processed on Waters Millenium HPLC equipped with dual-beam photocells and a fluorescence detector.

, 2005, Pannacciulli et al , 2006, Taki et al , 2008 and Raji et

, 2005, Pannacciulli et al., 2006, Taki et al., 2008 and Raji et al., 2010). Greater BMI is also found to correlate with Akt assay decreased neuronal viability of grey matter in temporal lobes of middle-aged adults, and neuronal and/or myelin metabolic abnormalities in grey and white matter (Gazdzinski et al., 2008, Gazdzinski et al., 2010 and Mueller et al., 2011). Thus, the reduction in regional brain volumes in obese individuals could reflect loss of neurons. It is well known that large hippocampal size is closely linked with good cognitive

function and memory (Stewart et al., 2005), and frontal brain regions are necessary for intact executive functions (Alvarez and Emory, 2006). Thus, whilst direct evidence is lacking, it is conceivable

that atrophy of these brain regions contributes to poor cognitive performance in obese individuals. The majority of studies examining associations between obesity and cognitive health/brain structure either do not include females or study males or females in isolation. Furthermore, findings from studies where potential sex-dependent differences have been examined are mixed. For example, in the Framingham Heart Study it was found that higher BMI was associated with poorer cognitive performance in middle-aged men but not women, with a significant interaction between obesity and sex (Elias et al., 2003 and Elias et al., 2005). Similarly, Kanaya et al. reported higher Wnt inhibitor total fat mass, abdominal fat, BMI, and waist circumference, are associated with worsening of cognitive function in elderly men at follow up seven years later, whereas women of similar age have a trend towards inverse Selleckchem Forskolin associations between these obesity indices and cognitive function (Kanaya et al., 2009). In contrast, Cournot et al. found no sex-dependent differences in the adverse effects of obesity (BMI) on cognitive performance in either young or middle-aged individuals (Cournot et al., 2006). There is also controversy in the literature about whether sex influences the association between obesity and alterations in brain structure. For example, a study found

an association between BMI and cerebral volume loss in men but not in women (Taki et al., 2008), whereas two separate studies showed an association between BMI and brain atrophy in women (Gustafson et al., 2004 and Raji et al., 2010). Gazdzinski et al. found virtually identical relationships between BMI and markers of myelin metabolic abnormalities in males and females (Gazdzinski et al., 2008). In contrast, another study found an association between BMI and markers of myelin degeneration only in women (Mueller et al., 2011). It is clear therefore that more research is required to fully determine whether sex influences obesity-related function and structural brain changes. The hypothalamic–pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis plays an important role in many brain functions including cognitive function. Moreover, as discussed in Section 6.

[30] found that a major QTL for yield and yield-related traits lo

[30] found that a major QTL for yield and yield-related traits located on chromosome 5 had the gene action of over-dominance. Fine-mapping of this QTL indicated that it consisted of two dominant loci linked in repulsion [28]. A similar pattern of gene action was found in our study. The two QTL for TGW were linked in repulsion on the long arm of rice chromosome 1, of which qTGW1.1 had an additive effect of 0.26 g and a partial dominance effect of 0.16 g, whereas qTGW1.2 had an additive effect of 0.62 g and a partial dominance effect of 0.43 g. When the two QTL were segregating

simultaneously in the BC2F6-II population, a residual additive effect of 0.27 g and an learn more over-dominance effect of 0.72 g were detected ( Table 3). Since the population used in this study was derived from a cross find more between the maintainer and restorer lines of a three-line hybrid rice, this result suggests that dominant QTL linked in repulsion might play important roles in the genetic control of heterosis in rice. This work was funded in part by the National High-Tech Research and Development Program (2012AA101102), the Chinese High-yielding Transgenic Program (2011ZX08001-004), and the Research Funding of the China National Rice Research Institute (2012RG002-3). “
“Population structure

is of great importance for maximizing yield in crops. Plant density acts as a key factor in regulating plant competition within the population and optimal plant densities are very important for efficient agronomic practice. Plant spacing varies with the growth of plants and the growing environments [1]. To date, diverse planting patterns, such as narrow spacing [2] and [3], wide–narrow rows [4], [5] and [6], and multiple-plant hill plots [7], have been developed in maize (Zea mays L.) in pursuit of high grain

yields under different growing conditions. Studies addressing the effects of plant spacing on yield have largely focused on improvement of above-ground canopy structure, resulting in photosynthetic rate increases via effective interception of solar radiation [3] and [6] P-type ATPase or better photosynthetic performance of ear leaves [7]. These strategies often result in reduction in plant competition for light resources at high planting densities. However, individual plants always compete for nutrition, water and root space [8], and few reports are available regarding root nutrient absorption under different plant spacings. The fibrous root system of maize radiates outward and more than 90% of the dry root weight in soil is distributed in the top 20 cm, and 60% in the soil region within 10 cm from each plant [9]. Mineral nutrient absorption by roots results in the formation of a nutritional gradient zone around each individual. When the nutritional gradient zones of neighboring plants overlap, nutrient concentration in the overlapped area remarkably decreases because of interactions between adjacent roots, resulting in reduced root absorption efficiency [10].

All of the OAg–ADH preparations were characterized by a sugar rec

All of the OAg–ADH preparations were characterized by a sugar recovery greater than 80%, with more Lapatinib in vivo than 80% of OAg chains activated and < 2% (in moles) of free to linked hydrazide groups. We confirmed the absence of dimer and aggregate formation with the reaction condition used by analysing the OAg–ADH using HPLC-SEC. This showed the presence of one peak with the same kd value as the underivatised OAg. The OAgoxADH preparation was characterized by a total sugar recovery of 73%,

with 20% activation (molar % linked ADH to Rha) and < 2% free to linked hydrazide groups. In theory, the presence of more than one ADH linker per OAg chain in OAgoxADH could favour the OAg binding to the NHS-Sepharose. However the binding capacity was found to be 3.7 mg of OAgoxADH and 4.3 mg of OAg–ADH per ml of resin. The prepared affinity columns were tested with a commercially-available preparation of purified polyclonal

rabbit anti-Salmonella Typhimurium O:4,5 antibodies to determine if the hydrolysis and activation of OAg with ADH had impaired the antigenic structure of the OAg. 3.7 and 4.3 mg of OAgoxADH and OAg–ADH respectively were linked to NHS-Sepharose columns and 300 μl of O:4,5 antibodies (with an antibody concentration corresponding to 1666 ELISA units) were applied to each column. 92% of the antibodies bound to the OAg–ADH column ( Fig. 2A) and 96% bound to the OAgoxADH column ( Fig. 2B) with the remaining applied antibodies detected in the flow through and subsequent wash fractions. 89% and 90% of bound antibodies were eluted with 0.1 M glycine, Rapamycin 0.1 M NaCl pH 3 buffer from the OAg–ADH and OAgoxADH columns respectively. Following the previous result confirming the functional antigenic integrity

of both forms of derivatised OAg bound to NHS-Sepharose, we applied a protein preparation concentrated from human serum containing polyclonal anti-Salmonella antibodies to both columns. The proteins had been precipitated from human serum using ammonium sulphate in order to reduce the presence of contaminants that could interfere with the interactions between OAg on the columns and corresponding antibodies, and to concentrate the antibodies. 300 μl of resulting protein solution (with an antibody concentration corresponding to 1000 ELISA units) were applied to each 1 ml column. A high proportion (> 75%) of the antibodies applied to Acetophenone the columns in the serum protein solution bound to the column as shown by the low signal in the ELISA for OAg antibodies in the flow through and wash fractions ( Fig. 2C and D). For the OAg–ADH column ( Fig. 2C), elution with 0.1 M glycine, 0.1 M NaCl pH 3 and immediate neutralisation with 2 M Tris pH 9, resulted in a recovery of only 14% of the bound antibodies. For the OAgoxADH column, only 2% of the bound antibodies were eluted under the same conditions ( Fig. 2D). The same results were obtained whether the ELISA was performed coating the plates with purified OAg from S.

Investment in statistical methodological development (e g , Bayes

Investment in statistical methodological development (e.g., Bayesian methods under development for seismic and sonar; Dr. Len Thomas, University of St Andrews, pers. comm.)

would allow us to extract additional information about response severity as a function of noise levels, rather than as a binary response. Fitting a dose–response curve reliably may require a bigger sample size across a wider range of received levels (and age, sex, speed etc.) to better estimate the underlying shape and to tighten confidence intervals. Until then, we may be looking only at a relatively low and flat end of a dose–response curve. This may be particularly http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Adriamycin.html true because killer whales are somewhat used to noise, and because the whales have a lot of notice that the ship is coming. The selleck chemicals ship noise will slowly increase as a ship passes, and it may be that dose–response curves will always show a better fit to sudden sounds like sonar or seismic surveys in which the sound source does not ramp up slowly. That said, the sample size in the current study is large, relative to more sophisticated and expensive control-exposure experiments on logistically challenging stressors like seismic surveys or military sonar (Miller et al., 2012 and Miller et al., 2009). We see value in inexpensive

studies like this one, especially because the land-based observation platform makes it possible to collect data under truly control (no-boat) conditions. The response variable we measured represents current best practice in quantifying exposure Sunitinib chemical structure and response of marine mammals to noise (Southall et al., 2007), but future studies may need to consider more ecologically relevant

response variables. We did not measure vocal behavior of killer whales (echolocation or call rates, source levels etc.), and ultimately, one would want to test whether foraging efficiency or prey intake were affected by these noise levels (Williams et al., 2006). The metabolic cost of swimming in killer whales is fairly flat across the range of speeds observed in this study (Williams and Noren, 2009), so in general, these behavioral responses are expected to carry minor energetic costs in terms of increased energy expenditure, with two important caveats. First, the cost to females of having a calf swim in echelon formation is already high, at a time when lactating females may already be energetically stressed, so if female killer whales truly are more responsive than males to large ships (Model 3), then increasing their travel costs would be a conservation concern (Williams et al., 2011). Secondly, this study only looked at overt behavioral responses from surface observations. If ship noise is reducing prey acquisition through acoustic masking of echolocation signals (Clark et al., 2009), causing whales to abandon foraging opportunities (Williams et al.

As detailed information

about each of the test methods is

As detailed information

about each of the test methods is already available in the scientific literature, this is not covered here. The laboratories in which the methods have been developed are indicated and key references are included for further reading. Skin sensitisers show a high diversity in terms of chemical and physiochemical properties. However the AOP considers, chemicals – or in case of pre-/pro-haptens, their respective metabolites – which act as sensitisers due to their ability to react FK506 cell line with skin proteins (haptenation). This common characteristic is used in a number of non-animal test methods to differentiate between sensitisers and non-sensitisers. Two in chemico assays focus on peptide reactivity using two model peptides as surrogates for cellular proteins. In addition, three cell line assays use the kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) as an intracellular sensor to investigate the reactivity of the test substance. Covalently binding to cysteine residues of Keap 1 causes this repressor protein to delocalize from the selleck transcription factor NF-E2 p45-related factor 2 (Nrf2) which can then bind to and activate antioxidant response element (ARE) containing promoters. Whilst all five protein reactivity methods reflect the well established importance of interaction between electrophilic haptens and nucleophilic target proteins, the cell line based assays address

in addition the induction of cytoprotective mechanisms (referring to AOP key event 2). KeratinoSens™ and LuSens furthermore provide the potential for keratinocyte metabolism of pro-haptens. The DPRA is a chemistry-based assay that evaluates reactivity of a test compound using two synthetic model peptides including a lysine or cysteine residue. A solution of peptide and test substance in a ratio of 1:10 for cysteine and 1:50 for lysine is incubated for 24 h. After the incubation

period, the remaining concentration of the free peptide is measured by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with gradient elution and ultraviolet (UV) detection at 220 nm. Depending on the data obtained from triplicate reactions, averaged peptide depletion of cysteine, lysine or 4-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase both are used in classification tree models to identify substances as sensitising or non-sensitising. In addition, the prediction model allows the allocation of the protein to the reactivity classes minimal, low, moderate and high (Gerberick et al., 2004 and Gerberick et al., 2007). The PPRA was developed from the DPRA in order to better identify potential pro- and pre-haptens. Eight concentrations of chemical are tested – instead of one concentration as in the DPRA. The cysteine peptide is incubated for 24 h in the presence and absence of horseradish peroxidase/hydrogen peroxide (HRP/P), whilst the lysine peptide is used only without HRP/P.

Não podemos esquecer, que estes critérios não foram feitos para i

Não podemos esquecer, que estes critérios não foram feitos para identificar síndromes de sobreposição e, na suspeita de autoimunidade, a biopsia hepática ainda é fundamental sendo, por vezes, o melhor árbitro e guia terapêutico. Seria útil uma comparação entre os 2 sistemas de classificação na determinação que doentes necessitariam realmente de biopsia hepática e quais beneficiariam com a terapêutica imunossupressora. Para além da necessidade de uma validação em grandes estudos prospectivos dos critérios simplificados, temos ainda por esclarecer se haverá algum critério de classificação melhor para uma determinada população. Será este baixo Selleck Akt inhibitor valor

de concordância obtido no artigo de Correia L. et al 15 um aviso que os critérios simplificados não serão os ideais para a nossa população? Qual o melhor score para a nossa população

portuguesa? Esperamos que este estudo seja o primeiro de vários para obtenção das nossas respostas. “
“A hepatite autoimune (HAI) é uma inflamação do fígado de etiologia desconhecida1 and 2. Pensa-se que na sua fisiopatologia estejam envolvidos fatores ambientais, falência de mecanismos de imunotolerância e predisposição genética que, em conjunto, vão induzir uma resposta celular contra antigénios www.selleckchem.com/products/BIBW2992.html hepáticos, mediada pelos linfócitos T, levando a um processo progressivo de necroinflamação e de fibrose2, 3 and 4. É uma doença relativamente rara, sendo a prevalência de 11 a 17 indivíduos por cada 100 000, com uma incidência de 1 a 2 indivíduos Protein kinase N1 por ano por cada 100 0002. Pode surgir em ambos os sexos (embora seja mais frequente no feminino) e em todos os grupos etários e raças1, 2, 5 and 6. O diagnóstico baseia-se nas alterações histológicas, nas características clínicas e nos achados laboratoriais (aumento das globulinas

séricas e presença de um ou mais autoanticorpos característicos)1, 2, 7, 8, 9 and 10. Tem apresentação clínica variável, pelo que o seu reconhecimento pode ser difícil. Frequentemente assintomática ou com sintomas inespecíficos (fadiga, icterícia, náuseas, dor abdominal e artralgias), pode também apresentar-se como hepatite aguda grave ou como falência hepática fulminante, com necessidade de transplante hepático9, 11 and 12. Assim, deve ser suspeitada em qualquer doente com aumento das aminotransferases6. Quando não é tratada, a HAI tem mau prognóstico, com desenvolvimento de cirrose hepática em menos de 10 anos e com sobrevivência de 50% aos 5 anos5 and 6. Por outro lado, com terapêutica imunossupressora, à qual mais de 80% dos doentes responde, a maioria pode esperar sobrevivência normal e com boa qualidade de vida13 and 14. Por esse motivo, o diagnóstico e o tratamento atempados são fundamentais5 and 6.

denticola, it should be mentioned that differences in frequencies

denticola, it should be mentioned that differences in frequencies of all other species were not observed between gingivitis and health. Macuch and Tanner 35 also found similar INCB018424 cell line bacterial frequency between gingivitis and health. Also, in a previous study by our group with children showing high levels of plaque, some important pathogens (P. gingivalis and T. forsythia) did not differ among three different levels of gingival bleeding. 36 Together, these results suggest that the loss of alveolar bone and soft tissues more than the presence of gingival inflammation may be related to an increased occurrence of some pathogens around periodontal tissues. The second hypothesis

of the present study was to test if bacterial frequencies were comparative in equivalent periodontal and peri-implant status (i.e. healthy peri-implant sites vs. healthy periodontal sites, mucositis vs. gingivitis and peri-implantitis vs. periodontitis), evaluating sites matched for clinical parameters within each clinical condition. The results showed that only C. rectus and T. forsythia presented significantly higher frequencies of detection in periodontal healthy sites than in peri-implant healthy ones as well as in gingivitis than in mucositis. These findings indicate that similarities in bacteria frequencies were evident between periodontal and peri-implant sites when health or a reversible

inflammation process were present. In support of our results, Gerber et al. 37 compared the microbiota at predominantly this website healthy tooth and implant sites and found only minor microbial differences between groups. Aoki et al., 38 studying the sources of peri-implant colonization by periodontal pathogens, observed similar detection rates of selected species in subgingival samples from adjacent periodontal sites and newly formed peri-implant sulci. Nowzari et al. 26 showed higher frequency of detection and higher levels of periodontal pathogens around

clinically healthy periodontal than clinically healthy peri-implant sites, but the difference was not statistically significant. However, it is important to note that the authors used Cepharanthine culture methods and evaluated a small sample size (only 11 subjects). Recently, Heuer et al. 27, using broad-range PCR techniques, demonstrated that the microbial diversity of the microbiota surrounding gingivitis (19 different bacteria genera) was significantly higher than the diversity of the microbiota associated to mucositis (6 different bacteria genera). Vered et al. 39 reported significantly higher numbers of aerobic and anaerobic oral bacteria in samples collected from teeth than those collected from implants within the same mouth. However, no systematic characterization of the clinical statuses of the teeth and implants was described. In this study, dissimilarities in bacteria occurrences between peri-implantitis and periodontitis were more evident, since higher frequencies of T. forsythia, C. rectus, P. intermedia, T.

The input signal is then determined by the incoming

The input signal is then determined by the incoming RO4929097 waves at the desired position. For an active wave absorber, for instance, the opposite signal is generated and added to the incoming wave in the same propagation direction. If in addition a fraction

of the signal is influxed in the opposite direction, a partly reflecting wall is obtained. In this way rather complex spatial geometries can be treated in a numerically accurate and efficient way. LSL would like to thank LabMath-Indonesia for the support and the hospitality during his stay for finishing this paper. DA thanks Cristian Kharif for fruitful discussions on nonlinear influxing during his stay at IRPHE, Marseille. The use of MARIN data from Tim Bunnik is acknowledged. This work is part of projects TWI.7216 and 11642 of the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research NWO, subdivision Applied Sciences STW, and KNAW (Royal Netherlands Academy of AC220 research buy Arts and Sciences). “
“Power generation utilizing renewable sources has become a common practice recently, reflecting

the major threats of climates change due to pollution, exhaustion of fossil fuels, and the environmental, social and political risks of fossil fuels. Fortunately, renewable energy sources are available in many countries and this can be exploited to satisfy energy needs with little or no impact on the environment. Hydro-power has always been an important energy resource and wind power has its share of success. However, there exists another source which contains vast amount of energy – the ocean energy. Ocean contains energy in the forms of thermal energy and mechanical energy: thermal energy from solar radiation and mechanical energy from the waves and tides. The generation of power with ocean waves is presented in this paper. Ocean waves arise from the transfer of energy from the sun to wind and then water. Solar energy creates wind which blows over

the ocean, converting wind energy to wave energy. This wave energy can travel thousands of miles with little energy loss. Most importantly, waves are a regular source of power with an intensity that can be accurately predicted several days before their arrival (NOAA Liothyronine Sodium Central Library, 2011). Wave is available 90% of the time compared to wind and solar resources which are available 30% of the time. In addition to this, wave energy provides somewhat 15–20 times more energy per square meter than wind or solar (Wavemill Energy Corp., 2011). There is approximately 8000–80,000 TWh/year or 1–10 TW of wave energy in the entire ocean, and on average, each wave crest transmits 20–50 kW/m. Wave power refers to the energy of ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work. There are many energy devices or energy converters available that can be used to extract power from ocean surface waves.

Expanding these protocols to representatives of the evolutionary<

Expanding these protocols to representatives of the evolutionary

lineages depicted in our Figure 1 will be especially rewarding for reconstructing cell type evolution of basal metazoans. Single cell transcriptomics will also contribute to unravel the specific combinations of transcription factors acting upstream of the cellular modules. A growing body of evidence indicates that genes encoding protein modules are often co-regulated by limited number of transcription factors (‘selector genes’), such as LIM and POU homeodomain family proteins [53•• and 54]; these factors act via similar Venetoclax nmr cis-regulatory elements, thus forming so-called ‘programming modules’ [55 and 56]. Once sets of genes encoding cellular modules and their specifying transcription factors will be attributed, at larger scale, to specific cell types PF-562271 in different species, this will set the stage for the identification of homologous cell types. Also, it will be possible to elucidate sister cell type relationships within a given species. We predict that the combination of comparative genomics and comparative single cell-transcriptomics will boost our understanding of cell type evolution in

animals. Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review, have been highlighted as: • of special interest “
“Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 2014, 28:71–77 This review comes from a themed issue on Cell reprogramming, regeneration and repair Edited by José CR Silva and Renee A Reijo Pera http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gde.2014.09.012 0959-437X/©

2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Pluripotency is defined as the ability of a cell or group of cells to differentiate to Baf-A1 ic50 all the cells of an adult body, including germ cells. In nature, pluripotency is a transient feature that characterizes a group of cells in the preimplantation embryo (the inner cell mass in the blastocyst) and in the early peri- and post-implantation embryo (the epiblast). Human Embryonic Stem Cells (hESCs) can be derived in vitro from human blastocysts and are characterized by an undifferentiated and pluripotent state that can be perpetuated in time, indefinitely. hESCs provide a unique opportunity to both dissect the molecular mechanisms that are required to maintain pluripotency and model the ability to initiate differentiation and cell commitment within the developing embryo. In order to understand mechanisms that function in maintaining pluripotency and directing differentiation, it is beneficial to accurately identify the specific transcriptome of hESCs. Over the last decade, several methods based on Second Generation Sequencing (SGS) have been used to try to characterize the transcriptome.