The studies to date, however, have reported a single point estimate of physical activity (eg, steps or activity counts) and most have had small samples, ie, less than 20. There are now devices that provide more detailed information about the nature of physical activity. The Intelligent GSK1120212 Device for Energy Expenditure and Activity (IDEEA) is one such device. It estimates duration and frequency of activity as well as distinguishing the

position of the body in which the activity is undertaken, eg, sitting, lying, standing, walking. In one study using this device, Sakamoto and colleagues (2008) found that nine community-dwelling stroke survivors stood for less time than Modulators Healthy controls but lay, sat, and walked for about the same amount of time. Our study extends this work by using the IDEEA to examine the free-living physical activity of a larger sample of community-dwelling people with stroke compared with that of age-matched healthy controls. The specific research questions for this study were: 1. What is the duration and frequency of physical activity in community-dwelling people after stroke compared with age-matched healthy controls? A cross-sectional observational study examining the free-living physical activity of ambulatory community-dwelling people with stroke compared with

that of age-matched healthy controls was conducted in Sydney, Australia. Duration and frequency of physical activity was collected over two days. Each participant was randomly allocated a day of the week and wore the activity monitor on this day and again a week later on the same day. The days Selleckchem BYL719 for measurement of free-living physical activity were counterbalanced across the week so that there were the same number of participants represented on each day of theweek. Data were collected from 30 min after dressing until 30 min

prior to undressing. Participants were instructed to carry out their routine activities. Stroke survivors and healthy controls who were living in the community were recruited using advertisements in the local community, including stroke clubs. People with stroke were included in the study if they were over 50 years old, within 1 to 5 years of their Thiamine-diphosphate kinase first stroke, able to walk 10 m independently, and retired from full-time employment. Healthy controls were included if they were over 50 years old, retired from full-time employment, and had no health problem that interfered with their ability to walk. They were excluded if they could not speak English or if they were unable to follow instructions. Free-living physical activity was collected using the Intelligent Device for Energy Expenditure and Activitya consisting of a recorder and five sets of sensors. The sets of sensors are attached to the front of the chest, the front of each thigh, and underneath each foot using medical tape, and measure angles of body segments and acceleration in two orthogonal directions.

Over 1.5 years since the surgery, the patient has been carefully followed with periodic PET-CT scans, and has not received any further intervention-chemotherapy or radiation. Discussion TGC are rare congenital cysts that occur in the retrorectal space and are thought to arise from postanal primitive gut remnants (1). The retrorectal or presacral space is bounded anteriorly by the rectum, posteriorly by the sacrum, superiorly

by the peritoneal reflection, inferiorly the levators ani and coccygeus muscles, and laterally by the ureters and iliac vessels (2). TGC have Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical also been referred to as retrorectal cyst hamartoma (3), cyst of postanal intestine, tail gut vestiges, and rectal cyst (4). TGC should be distinguished from other lesions which may occur in the retrorectal space including teratomas, epidermal cysts, rectal duplication cysts, anal gland cysts, and anal gland carcinomas (4). Although TGC may clinically present in all age groups from neonates to adults, the anomaly is more Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical commonly found in middle-aged females. Most patients with TGC probably remain asymptomatic, and the cyst is discovered incidentally. When symptomatic, the presentation is usually non-specific and is most frequently Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical related to compressive effects of a growing Mdm2 inhibitor pelvic mass (e.g., rectal fullness, urinary frequency, rectal bleeding, pain on defecation, constipation,

lower abdominal and back pain and symptoms associated with genitourinary obstruction). Infection, chronic abscesses and fistulas with the rectum or with perianal skin can also develop. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical The patient may present

with a history of multiple drainage procedures for recurrent pilonidal abscess, perianal abscess or fistula-in-ano. Majority of TGCs are benign. However, malignant transformation of the epithelial component of a TGC has been reported on rare occasions. Malignancies that have been reported within TGC include adenocarcinomas, carcinoid tumors, neuroendocrine carcinomas, endometrioid carcinoma, adenosquamous carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and sarcoma (5,6). However, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the majority is adenocarcinomas and carcinoid tumors. An extensive search of the literature revealed only 17 cases of adenocarcinoma arising in a TGC (1,3,6,7). All TGC should be assessed for malignancy (5). Despite advances in a variety of diagnostic methods such as CT and MRI, a precise diagnosis can only be made by histopathologic examination after surgical removal (8). Although malignancy during arising in a TGC has been reported with a needle biopsy, it is generally not advised as there is a potential for false-negative results and also, the biopsy carries the risk of spillage into the pelvic cavity and seeding of the biopsy tract. If the index of suspicion for malignancy is low and the patient is asymptomatic, routine surveillance may be appropriate. A transrectal or presacral needle biopsy may only be considered for patients who are at high surgical risk.

36 Greater creatine concentration was also noted39 in patients, perhaps reflecting a greater metabolic demand in the medial thalamus. Amygdala volume decreased with effective SSRI treatment in pediatric OCD patients.40 Interestingly, the change in amygdala volume was not related to a change in OCD symptom severity, but correlated with SSRI dosage. Pituitary gland volume was significantly smaller in pediatric OCD patients as compared to matched controls.41

This was especially apparent in males, highlighting a possible sex difference in OCD. GSK2118436 cell line glutamate and pediatric OCD proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies (1H-MRS) The core excitatory neurotransmitter Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of this corticalstriatal-thalamic circuit mentioned earlier is glutamate. It was in 1998 that Rosenberg and Keshavan33 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical first hypothesized a role for glutamate in pediatric OCD, and evidence of glutamate abnormalities in OCD has been mounting since. In the first report on glutamate in OCD, Rosenberg et al,42 using proton

magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS), observed above-normal striatal glutamate + glutamine (Glx) concentrations in psychotropic-naive pediatric OCD patients as compared with controls, which normalized after effective treatment with an Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical SSRI. This decrease in striatal Glx may endure after SSRI discontinuation.43 Interestingly, the other treatment considered effective for OCD, CBT, did not alter caudate Glx concentrations in pediatric OCD patients despite a reduction Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in symptoms.44 Conversely, in the anterior cingulate, a single-voxel 1H-MRS study found lower Glx concentrations in pediatric OCD patients than in healthy controls.45 This was replicated in adults with OCD, where below normal anterior cingulate Glx was observed in female patients.46 Lower anterior cingulate glutamate correlated with symptom severity in this sample. Again in adult OCD patients, Whiteside et al47 observed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical elevated Glx/PCr+Cr (creatine) levels in the orbital frontal

white matter in patients as compared with controls. These effects appear to be regionally specific, with no effect noted in the occipital cortex, an area not typically implicated in the pathophysiology of OCD.42 In conclusion, in vivo studies of the cortical-striatal-thalamic circuit in OCD have implicated glutamate directly. It is important Ergoloid to note, however, that correlation does not indicate causation and the overall weight of the evidence implicating glutamate should be considered. Animal models and peripheral marker studies These neuroimaging findings have been bolstered by studies using other methods and models. Chakrabarty et al48 studied cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) concentration of glutamate in 21 psychotropic-naïve adults with OCD and 18 healthy controls. CSF glutamate concentration was significantly greater in OCD patients as compared with control subjects.

No seizures occurred, nor were any blood dyscrasias reported. Another advantage of valproate is that it may be less likely to cause cognitive impairment in comparison with some of the older AEDs [McElroy et al. 1989]. Common adverse effects of valproate include dyspepsia, gastric irritation, nausea, increased appetite and weight gain (8–14 kg in up to 59% of patients) [Tranulis et al. 2006]. Many of these adverse effects are additive to those caused by clozapine. In one study [Kando et al. 1994], Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical sedation was the most common adverse effect experienced

by 34 patients (62%) and led to the discontinuation of valproate in 3 patients. Other adverse effects include hair loss with curly regrowth, more rarely anaemia and blood disorders leucopenia and pancytopenia [Langosch and Trimble, 2002]. A case study also reported an apparently increased risk of agranulocytosis and neutropenia with valproate Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical used adjunctively with clozapine [Pantelis and Adesanya, 2001].

This was reversed when the valproate was stopped. Valproate should not normally be used in women of child-bearing age because it is an established human teratogen; neural tube defects have been Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical associated with valproate taken during the first trimester of pregnancy [McElroy et al. 1989]. If valproate cannot be avoided, then adequate contraception should be strongly recommended and prophylactic folic acid prescribed [National Institute for Clinical Excellence, 2006]. There are conflicting reports

on the effect of valproate on clozapine metabolism. Two studies found a moderate increase in the clozapine level (39%, Centorrino et al. [1994], and 20%, Facciola et al. [1999]) after at least 1 week of steady dose treatment. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical In contrast, a case report [Conca et al. 2000] found that the clozapine plasma level was significantly decreased, suggesting an induction of clozapine metabolism by valproate. Similarly, a small study (n = 7) [Longo and Salzman, 1995] found a 15% decrease in clozapine plasma levels after the addition of valproate. The mechanism by which valproate might induce or inhibit the metabolism of clozapine is unclear. Facciola and colleagues surmised that the interaction might involve Anti-infection Compound Library displacement from of clozapine from plasma protein binding sites. The findings described above could be explained by the coexistence of two mechanisms of interaction (enzyme inhibition and protein binding displacement) leading to opposite changes in total clozapine levels [Facciola et al. 1999]. Perhaps more important is the very significant variation in measured plasma levels of clozapine in patients receiving constant dose clozapine [Palego et al. 2002] which may lead to the opposing findings described above. Overall, valproate does not appear to cause any clinically significant change in the steady-state plasma levels of clozapine and norclozapine.

(B) Scalp distributions of ERP effects (change minus standard) in the 300–700 msec and 700–1200

msec time windows. … Discussion This study was designed to investigate the ability of 11- to 12-month-old infants to quickly detect object-location changes in a visual scene. EEG was measured during the presentation of an oddball paradigm with a standard stimulus, a stimulus with a location change, a stimulus with an object change, and a stimulus with a switch of two objects to investigate the time course and ERP components related to the processing of these Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical changes. Results show an Nc effect between 300 and 700 msec in all oddball conditions, reflecting either increased attention or conscious change detection (see De Haan 2007 for an overview). Therefore, the Nc effect in all three deviant conditions Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical reveals that the infant brain is capable of detecting a change causing increased attention within this brief time frame. This is crucial evidence that the brain processes are in place for infants to notice a change in the objects’ configuration. However, the early detection of these changes may not be conscious and may not include knowledge on what specific change has taken place. With

regard to the observed Nc effect, the effect was the result of a smaller Nc in the oddball conditions Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical as compared to the standard condition. In most infant ERP studies the Nc Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical effect is reversed, showing a larger Nc in oddball conditions as compared to the standard selleck compound condition (Reynolds and Richards 2005; Webb et al. 2005; Ackles and Cook 2007; Ackles 2008). However, in line with our results, De Haan and Nelson

(1997, 1999) also report conditions with larger Nc’s for familiar objects and faces than for unfamiliar objects and faces. More recently, Stets and Reid (2011) investigated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the effect of the number of trials included in the ERP on the amplitude of the Nc effect. They found a negative effect when all trials (between 11 and 37 trials) were included in the ERP, but a positive effect when only seven trials per condition were included. The polarity of the effect was thus affected Fossariinae by the number of trials included in the analysis. This may account for the reversed effect in our study, as the oddball ERP waveforms included a minimum of seven with a mean 11–13 trials. In this study we maximized the signal-to-noise ratio in the standard condition by including more trials in the EEG average (with a mean of 110 trials). However, Figure S3 clearly shows that the size (and polarity) of the Nc effect was not affected by the inclusion of more trials in the standard condition with respect to the deviant conditions. In addition to the Nc effect for all manipulations, a subsequent PSW effect was found in the object change and location change conditions as compared to the standard condition. The effect was not found in the switch condition.

We thank Ms. E. Kawahara of Tottori University for technical assistance in measurements of electron microscopy. Conflict of Interest None declared.
Emotional dysregulation is a feature of multiple psychiatric, psychological, and neurological conditions, and conversely,

effective emotional regulation characterizes positive well-being, coping, and resilience. Our aim Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical was to use these features to identify a broad screen for poor versus good emotional health across diagnostic and community samples. Approximately 60% of patients who have psychiatric and neurological disorders seek care from primary care physicians (Regier et al. 1978; Ezzati-Rice and Rohde 2008). Clinicians who are not psychiatric or neurological Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical specialists are increasingly expected to serve roles in early identification, management, and ultimately prevention of these disorders. (Druss et al. 2010). To support these roles, there is demand for a quick screen that can be applied across broad find more populations and provide immediate

feedback. Ideally, such screening tools would be time effective for both physician – given typical heavy patient loads – and patient – picking up a broad set of conditions earlier and more effectively. They would provide an objective and accurate way to identify individuals at risk of psychiatric and neurological conditions, and factor in behaviors which contribute to resilience Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and capacity to cope. Furthermore, they would provide immediate feedback on case identification via automated reporting. There is currently a dearth of standardized tools that provide a broad screen of this kind. At the population level, mental health-related disorders Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical go unidentified and thus untreated in 50–65% of cases (Nielson and Williams 1980; Kessler et al. 1985; Schulberg et al. 1985; Katon Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 1987; Barret et al. 1988; Borus et al. 1988; Schulberg and Burns 1988; Andersen and Harthorn 1989; Ormel et al. 1991; Rydon et al.

1992). Of the available self-report screening scales that could be considered brief and comprising sound psychometric properties, the focus Adenylyl cyclase is on screening for a particular diagnosis (Mulrow et al. 1995). For example, the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 item (PHQ-9) screens specifically for diagnostic criteria of depressive disorder (Kroenke et al. 2010), and the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptoms – Self-Report (QIDS-SR) assesses the severity of symptoms in major depressive disorder (Rush et al. 2003). Other scales are focused on health-related outcomes. For example, the Medical Outcomes Study Short Form (SF-36; Ware and Sherbourne 1992) and its even shorter version (SF-12) are a psychometrically sound survey designed to assess quality-of-life outcomes across diagnoses. It is not intended as a screening tool. Other pan-diagnostic scales with robust psychometric qualities are focused on outcomes for a related set of diagnoses.

In some cases, the severe phenotype may be explained by the association with mutation in the AMPD1 gene (1). In addition, an angiotensin converter enzyme (ACE) insertion/deletion polymorphism might play a significant role as a phenotype modulator in individuals with GSD-V (44). Conclusion Molecular genetics studying by DNA testing should be the first choice in the diagnostic of McArdle disease, starting to analyse the common p.R50X mutation. However, since most of the PYGM mutations are private, the possibility of finding

new mutations has to be taken into account. Any a priori silent variant has Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to be evaluated as possible putative pathogenic mutation. Finally, we underline the importance Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of the cDNA analysis that may allow the genetic diagnosis, providing novel information on the mechanisms of the PYGM gene splicing machinery. Acknowledgements Supported by grants from the Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria (FIS PI040487, FIS PI040362), the Spanish Network for Rare Diseases (CB06/07/0015), Ricerca Corrente-Istituto Gaslini, and the Italian Ministry of Health.

McArdle disease (MCA) is the muscle glycogenosis

due to defect of myophosphorylase. The pathological hallmark of the disease is the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical accumulation in the skeletal muscle of normal glycogen, and the absence of histochemical staining for glycogen phosphorylase in muscle. The pathology Sotrastaurin research buy reflects the biochemical functional block in access to muscle glycogen, which while causing the local storage,

is the physiopathological basis Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of the clinical signs associated with the disease. Patients with MCA show exercise intolerance which is maximal for the efforts which depend upon the rapid mobilization of muscle glycogen. Acute anaerobic efforts, when sustained after the first minute, depend heavily upon glycolytic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical metabolism, which in skeletal muscle utilises blood born glucose and glucose-1-P obtained from glycogen breakdown, which is blocked in MCA patients (1). Indeed, one of the most typical sign of MCA is the second-wind phenomenon, by which the patient, who experienced exhaustion after few minutes of acute effort slightly above the anaerobic threshold, is able to resume the effort with a much improved capacity and resistance (2). There are two rational Calpain approaches to circumvent this metabolic limitation, either the provision of a sufficient and continuous blood glucose flux, or a more efficient utilization of the available fuels. The first approach is efficiently achieved by timely oral administration of sugar (2), which was shown to significantly improve perceived exhaustion and sustainable workload. This approach however cannot cover for all the unforecasted efforts, and has obvious limitation in terms of sustainable amount of sugar ingested.

In contrast, Shiah et al136 found that GH response to the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)B receptor agonist, baclofen, was not altered in SAD or by light therapy. On the basis of evidence that heme moieties and bile www.selleckchem.com/products/ch5424802.html pigments in plants and animals mediate some of the nonvisual influences of light on biological rhythms, Oren137 hypothesized that bilirubin, which is a proposed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical photoreceptor given its similarity to the chromophore of phytochrome (a primary time-setting plant molecule), plays an evolutionary role in the regulation of rapid-eye movement (REM) sleep and in mediating some of the antidepressant effects of light. He and his colleagues138 found that nocturnal bilirubin levels

were lower in patients with winter depression compared with controls, and that levels increased in both groups during the night and increased in patients after 2 weeks of morning light treatment that improved mood. Sleep, hemispheric, and EEC changes Bright light shortens sleep onset, decreases number of awakenings, increases REM latency, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical attenuates REM length, and improves morning alertness in patients with MDD.139 In SAD patients, Partonen et al140 found no sleep electroencephalographic (EEG) changes after treatment Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with bright light, although morning sleepiness was reduced. SAD patients have the

expected pattern of EEG frontal asymmetry when depressed and following light-induced remission, although right hemisphere Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical coherence is a state-dependent

indicator of seasonal depression.141 Winter depression is associated with a shift of laterality from the left to the right that was normalized by bright light treatment.142 Brunner et al143 documented normal homeostatic sleep regulation in SAD; although sleep EEG spectra in SAD, but not controls, showed modifications resembling those of recovery sleep after light treatment (perhaps reflecting sleep curtailment), the authors concluded Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical that the effects of light treatment in SAD were unlikely to be mediated by changes in sleep. A positive response to total sleep deprivation in major depression is predictive of a beneficial outcome of subsequent light therapy.144 Temperature regulation In a review of the neurobiological effects of artificial bright light, Dilsaver145 reported that, based already on measures of core temperature, bright light subscnsitizcs muscarinic and nicotinic mechanisms. Although temperature curves between SAD and controls were similar, light treatment enhanced the amplitude of the core body temperature rhythm in SAD patients during winter.146 There were no abnormalities in the baseline phase or amplitude of the temperature rhythm in SAD patients versus controls,147 and antidepressant responses to light treatment were unrelated to changes in the temperature rhythm.

Consequently, the approach for neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy prior to pancreaticoduodenectomy is gaining wider acceptance and more patients with pancreatic cancer will require pre-operative biliary drainage in the future. Current data unequivocally supports the use of SEMS for patients presenting with malignant biliary obstruction due to potentially resectable pancreatic cancer

undergoing neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy. On the other hand, for patients who have Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical resectable pancreatic cancer, many centers may consider to proceed with curative surgery upfront. In such cases where patients may be undergoing curative surgery without neoadjuvant therapy, SEMS or any other stents may not be warranted. Lastly, when the stage of disease Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and treatment plan are not completely Tariquidar defined at the time of diagnosis, the vast majority of patients with symptomatic malignant distal

bile duct obstruction may be best served by placement of SEMS rather than a plastic stent at the initial endoscopic intervention, due to the superior patency, lower rate of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical complications, and cost-effectiveness of SEMS. Acknowledgements Disclosure: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
A 27 year-old Hispanic female G1P0202 presented to the emergency room with severe abdominal pain. She described a 2 day history of worsening intermittent “crampy” pain located in the periumbilical region that was exacerbated with touch. She also reported 3 episode of non-bloody vomiting earlier that day. Review of systems was unremarkable. Past medical and surgical histories revealed a caesarean section of twins one month prior for premature rupture of membranes at 35 weeks. She denied any social or family histories. Vitals were within normal Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical limits. The abdomen was soft with normal bowel sounds and focal tenderness elicited on palpation

of the right lower quadrant. On deep palpation a 3 cm hardened mass was found in the right periumbilical area. Laboratory findings revealed leukocytosis Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of 11.9 K (4.5-11.0 k/mm3). Complete blood count, coagulation profile, urine pregnancy, and basic STK38 metabolic panel were unremarkable. Liver related tests were mildly elevated: ALT-113 (0-31 U/L), AST-76 (0-32 U/L), alkaline phosphatase of 124 (39-117 U/L), total bilirubin of 1.2 (0.0-1.0 mg/dL). A CT of the abdomen/pelvis with oral and IV contrast revealed possible volvulus. A repeat CT of the abdomen/pelvis with rectal contrast was then ordered for further characterization demonstrating a suspicious rounded area of low attenuation with peripheral high density (appendix) as a lead point consistent with an intussusception (Figures 1,​,2).2). The patient was taken to the operating room where an exploratory laparotomy was performed urgently to relieve the intussusception. A midline excision was made extending from the xiphoid to the pubic symphysis. The uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries appeared grossly normal.

14 Figure 2. Schematic summary of the general impact of light on both visual and non-image-forming biological functions. Acute light effects Light also exerts acute effects on subjective alertness and cognitive performance, and it inhibits the secretion

of melatonin by the pineal gland.3,5,15,16 Salivary or plasma melatonin concentrations are commonly used to assess circadian phase or to quantify the magnitude Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of light-induced melatonin suppression. Acute light effects are dependent on the photopigment melanopsin, and are stronger when light contains a greater proportion of blue light.3,17 For example, light exposure with monochromatic blue light had a greater alerting effect, increased heart rate, core body temperature, cognitive performance, pupil light reflex, and clock gene expression Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical compared with green light (for reviews see refs 3,17). Several functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have revealed higher brain activity16 and stronger effects on mood-related brain areas to monochromatic blue than to green light.18 Even a low-lit computer Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical screen, which contains more blue light, had stronger effects on subjective alertness and cognitive performance than a conventional screen.19 Most of these studies were performed during nighttime,

with prior dim or dark adaptation. Some also showed acute light effects during daytime and evening with polychromatic white light20-22 or blue-enriched light sources.23,24 Acute light effects are at least partly conveyed by the ascending reticular arousal system, projecting to higher cortical

areas via the brain stem, Ribociclib purchase hypothalamus, thalamic nuclei, and other brain regions,16,22 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical known to convey visual and nonvisual information (such as the lateral geniculate nuclei of the thalamus25). There is growing evidence that genetic factors, for example the clock gene PER3 polymorphism, play a role in responsiveness to acute light effects in humans.26 Prior light history modulates subsequent light effects, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical as has been shown on circadian phase shifts, melatonin suppression, and cognitive performance.27-29 Light exposure during the day impacts on sleep during the night,30 with Tolmetin different effects on sleep latency, non-rapid eye movement sleep, slow-wave activity, and wakefulness during scheduled sleep, as well as on rapid eye movement sleep latency. These changes depend on the light source, exposure duration, and timing.30-32 Light and age There is conflicting information as to whether healthy older adults undergo a general attenuation in non-image-forming light perception. At the level of the eye, a substantial proportion of visible blue light is filtered out due to physiological yellowing of the aging lens and smaller baseline pupil size.