9 °C, with a high standard deviation. Even at the highest experimental temperature of 42.4 °C the wasps showed “rest” according to our definition at least for some minutes ( Fig. 2D, data point (D) in Fig. 3). Some wasps like the individual in Fig. 2E (Ta = 38.5 °C) showed an unusually cool spot at the head which was caused by wetting of the mouthparts

with regurgitated liquid droplets. This behavior cools the head and to some extent also the thorax at high temperatures. However, those wasps were usually active, cooling individuals at rest were an exception. Negative values Androgen Receptor Antagonist of the thoracic temperature excess (i.e. the thorax was cooler than the abdomen) may have been caused by the aforementioned evaporative cooling of head and thorax in some individuals, but may also have occurred due to slight vertical temperature gradients inside the measurement chamber and the orientation of the wasp body in this gradient ( Fig. 3, e.g. individual at Ta = 12 °C). Respiration data from clearly identified V. vulgaris   and V. germanica   ( Bellmann, 1995 and Clapperton et al., 1989) did not differ significantly (ANOVA: P   = 0.4857, F   = 0.49), so results of all individuals were pooled (V. vulgaris  : n   = 26, V.

germanica  : n   = 12). With increasing experimental ambient temperature (T  a), CO2 production rate increased exponentially, from 5.658 μl g−1 min−1 at 8.3 °C to 18.504 μl g−1 min−1 at 20.2 °C, 58.686 μl g−1 min−1 at 35.3 °C, and approaching 102.84 μl g−1 min−1 at 40 °C ( Fig. 4). The following exponential function fitted the data best: VCO2=A1∗expTa/t1+A2∗expTa/t2+A3∗expTa/t3+y0VCO2=A1∗expTa/t1+A2∗expTa/t2+A3∗expTa/t3+y0where

Everolimus clinical trial VCO2VCO2 is carbon dioxide production rate [μl g−1 min−1] and Ta   is the ambient temperature [°C] in the measurement chamber (R  2 = 0.96275, n   = 846, 38 individuals; the range of validity is 7.7–42.4 °C). Parameters: A1 = 9.7023*10−5, Protein tyrosine phosphatase t  1 = 3.11195, A2 = 4.63097, t  2 = 14.6382, A3 = 56769.01521, t  3 = 3.81259*1084, y0 = −56770.80269. The mean Q10 was 2.27 (SD = 0.30, n   = 23). However, with this function the Q10 was not constant. It decreased from 2.98 at a mean T  a of 13 °C (±5 °C) to 1.97 at a T  a of 23 °C and increased to 2.84 at a T  a of 35 °C. This function fitted the data better than a conventional exponential equation (VCO2=a∗bTaVCO2=a∗bTa; R2 = 0.9404; a = 1.37152, b = 1.11652) particularly in the range of Ta = 20 to 35 °C. At high Ta above 35 °C ( Fig. 4, dashed line) CO2 production increased steeply until the wasp’s upper respiratory critical thermal maximum (resp CTmax). Individual wasps differed in their thermal tolerance. Our experiments were not conducted to determine the lethal temperature, nevertheless some wasps died due to continuous exposure to high experimental temperatures. Below 35 °C all wasps survived at least for 6 h (which was the minimal duration of an experiment). At higher temperatures some wasps died already at a Ta below the mean CTmax.