This is due to loss of Akt Ser473 phosphorylation [ 48••]. Similar to LTsc1KO mice, LiRiKO mice show reduced SREBP-1c activity. Again, restoration of Akt signaling suppressed the defects in SREBP-1c activity and de novo lipogenesis [ 48••]. Defects in SREBP-1c activity and hepatic lipogenesis in LiRiKO mice, where mTORC2 but not mTORC1

is impaired, suggest that Akt regulates SREBP-1c at least partly independently of mTORC1. Interestingly, Insig2a regulation was not changed in the liver of LiRiKO mice, indicating that Akt Ser473 phosphorylation is not necessary for Insig2a inhibition. In conclusion, mTORC1, mTORC2, and Akt are required for lipogenesis in the liver. Hepatic mTORC2 controls glucose homeostasis via activation of glycolysis and inhibition of gluconeogenesis [48••]. mTORC2 stimulates glycolysis through Bortezomib cost activation Veliparib cost of glucokinase and the transcription factor ChREBP. mTORC2 inhibits gluconeogenesis by inhibiting nuclear accumulation of FoxO1. The regulation of at least glucokinase and FoxO1 are via phosphorylation of Akt Ser473. These findings demonstrate that in the liver mTORC2 tightly regulates Akt to control glucose and lipid homeostasis and thereby whole body metabolism. A defect in hepatic mTORC2 signaling may contribute to the development

of diabetes. mTOR or raptor knockout mice have been generated to determine the in vivo function of mTORC1 signaling in skeletal and cardiac muscle. Skeletal muscle-specific knockout mice develop progressive muscle dystrophy and display decreased oxidative capacity and increased glycogen content [ 83 and 84••]. Skeletal muscle of S6K1 deficient mice becomes atrophic nearly and accumulates glycogen, suggesting that mTORC1 controls muscle mass and physiology through at least S6K1 [ 85 and 86]. Muscle of S6K1 deficient mice display increased rather than decreased mitochondrial activity, suggesting that mTORC1 may regulate mitochondrial oxidative capacity through a substrate other than S6K1 [ 86]. Cardiac-specific mTOR or raptor knockout mice

develop dilated cardiomyopathy due to loss of 4E-BP1 inhibition and thus reduced protein synthesis [ 87 and 88]. The increased glycogen accumulation observed in skeletal muscle-specific mTOR or raptor knockout mice is mediated by Akt hyperactivation due to the loss of the negative feedback loop [ 83 and 84••]. Despite Akt hyperactivation, muscle-specific raptor knockout mice are slightly glucose intolerant. This is unexpected and thus requires further study since Akt activates glycolysis and glucose uptake. The decrease in mitochondrial oxidative capacity observed in the raptor knockout mice is due to a reduction in PGC-1α, since the defect is suppressed by restoration of PGC-1α expression [ 89].