Premutagenic damages may be repaired prior to cell division while the damages in the second and third groups are permanent and have the ability of transmission to daughter cells after cell division (Guy, 2005) (Fig. 1). Between chromosomal assessments, micronucleus has been recognized as the most reliable and successful test as verified by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). A micronucleus is referred to the third nucleus formed during the metaphase/anaphase transition of mitosis. The group of these cytoplasmic

bodies is called micronuclei having a portion of acentric chromosome or whole chromosome, which does not integrate in the opposite poles during the anaphase. This results in the formation of daughter cells without a part or all of a chromosome. Regarding sensitivity, reliability, and cost-effectiveness Selleck Pictilisib of this test, it has been proposed as a biomarker for genotoxicity calculations, and has been used in different studies on pesticide-exposed populations. Most of these AZD8055 surveys implied on the increased level

of micronucleus formation in people dealing with pesticides for a long time (Costa et al., 2011, Ergene et al., 2007 and Garaj-Vrhovac and Zeljezic, 2002). Sister chromatid exchange (SCE) or exchange of genetic material between sister chromatids is another testing for chemicals suspected to be mutagenic. Elevated level of SCE has been observed in some diseases, including Bloom syndrome and Behçet’s syndrome and maybe tumor formation. There are some reports on increased frequency of SCE in pesticide applicators who worked in agricultural fields (Carbonell et al., 1990, Rupa et al., 1991 and Zeljezic and Garaj-Vrhovac, 2002). Single-cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) or Comet assay is a simple and sensitive testing for evaluation of DNA strand breaks

in eukaryotic cells (Dhawan et al., 2009). This technique has been frequently used for biomonitoring genotoxic effect of pesticides in a large number of studies most of which implicate on induction of DNA damage by aminophylline these chemicals (Grover et al., 2003, Mostafalou and Abdollahi, 2012c, Shadnia et al., 2005 and Zeljezic and Garaj-Vrhovac, 2001). Although, genotoxicity assays are among necessary tests applying for pesticides prior to introducing to the market, collected data from post-market monitoring studies have been evident for potential of allowed pesticides in induction of genetic damages. Considering genetic damages as one of the main events for cancer induction or development, further studies focusing on genotoxicity of pesticides, of course in appropriate models like exposure to their mixtures along with some other promoting factors, are required to understand the carcinogenic and tumorigenic mechanisms of pesticides (Table 3).