pneumoniae. Our data support theoretical predictions that

the existence of barriers to recombination allow the accumulation of significant genetic drift, even within highly recombinogenic bacterial Bafilomycin A1 concentration species. An understanding of these mechanisms and their consequences offer further insights into the evolution of bacterial pathogens and may allow more informed predictions on the consequences of human interventions such as antibiotic use and vaccination on bacterial populations. Addendum in proof We recently became aware of a study (Omar Cornejo, personal communication) that has addressed the same issue discussed here. In contrast to our findings, the authors failed to detect any differentiation between the two pherotype defined populations. GSK872 manufacturer The reasons behind this discrepancy of results is not clear and further studies are needed to reconcile these apparently contradictory findings. Methods Bacterial strains, growth conditions, PFGE and MLST A collection of 483 invasive pneumococcal isolates recovered during the period of 1999 to 2002 in Portugal were obtained from the Faculdade de Medicina de Lisboa collection. The serotype, PFGE type, MLST characterization and antibiotic susceptibility of

these strains were collected from previous studies[25, 30, 54]. Briefly, all S. pneumoniae strains were grown in a casein-based semi-synthetic medium (C+Y) at 37°C without aeration or in tryptic soy agar (TSA) (Oxoid, Hampshire, England) supplemented with 5% (v/v) sterile sheep blood incubated Thymidylate synthase at 37°C in 5% CO2. Antimicrobial susceptibility, serotyping and PFGE analysis was performed for all isolates. MLST analysis was performed for at least one isolate in each major PFGE cluster (n = 90) and revealed 57 different sequence types (ST) corresponding to 39 different lineages by eBURST analysis. Detection of the pherotype and endonuclease restriction phenotype by PCR CSP-1 and CSP-2 gene fragments were amplified using multiplex PCR with

primers CSP_up (5′-TGA AAA ACA CAG TTA AAT TGG AAC-3′), CSP1_dn (5′-TCA AGA AAG GAT AAA GGT AGT CCT C-3′) and CSP2 _dn (5′-TAA AAA TCT TTC AAT CCC TAT TT-3′), which allowed the GDC-0941 molecular weight amplification of fragments of 620 bp for the CSP-1 allele and 340 bp for the CSP-2 allele. dpnI and dpnII genotype was also detected by multiplex PCR with primers DpnI_up (5′-GAA GTA GGA GAT AAA TTG CCA GAG), DpnII_up (5′-TAC GAA TGA TGG GAA TAC TGT G-3′) and Dpn_dn (5′-TGT CCT CAA TGC CGT ATT AAA TC-3′), with the expected products of 342 bp and 421 bp for dpnI and dpnII, respectively. Template DNA was prepared by diluting 9 μl of an overnight culture in 441 μl of water and boiling this mixture for 2 minutes.