Moreover, the delivery method for remote biopsy methods (e.g., pole, rifle or crossbow and the power of delivery) is dictated by the body size (e.g., small, medium, large), skin and blubber thickness, and the swimming speed of the cetacean being sampled as well as by the approach distance and maneuverability of the boat. Finally, the size of the dart or biopsy punch utilized is generally dictated by the sample that is required (e.g., skin or blubber and skin) and the depth and structure of the

blubber layer. Although manual biopsy techniques (e.g., capture methods using trocars or scalpels; for examples, see Hansen and Wells 1996, Krahn et al. 2004, Wells selleck chemicals llc et al. 2004) have been used on some cetaceans, GPCR & G Protein inhibitor researchers more often employ remote biopsy methods (pole-mounted darts or darts launched using a compound bow, crossbow, or gun, see below for references) to obtain tissue samples from free-swimming cetaceans. Indeed, the use of non-lethal projectiles to obtain both skin and blubber samples from cetaceans for scientific investigations is increasing and has been used on over 40 cetacean species worldwide (Table 1, 2), resulting in several thousand samples collected. As with many emerging technologies used for field research on large animals, research and development

for marine mammal biopsy systems continue to evolve. Thus, many aspects of cetacean biopsy methods, particularly remotely delivered biopsies, have advanced considerably since Palbociclib supplier the first biopsy dart was fired to collect humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) tissue for cytological sexing almost 40 yr ago (Winn et al. 1973). For reviews of the history of remote biopsy techniques and a description of the equipment used see Lambertsen (1987), Mathews et al. (1988), Nishiwaki et al. (1990), Kasamatsu et al. (1991), Palsbøll et al. (1991), Aguilar and Borrell (1994a),

Lambertsen et al. (1994), Patenaude and White (1995), Barrett-Lennard et al. (1996), Larsen (1998), and Krützen et al. (2002). The present study is the first comprehensive review to examine factors that influence the success of collecting biopsy samples from free-ranging cetaceans as well as evaluate factors that influence physiological and behavioral responses for a wide range of cetacean species that have been sampled via biopsy techniques. The primary focus is remote biopsy techniques; though, some information on manual biopsy techniques is presented for comparison. The information provided can be used to improve biopsy sampling protocols and to increase the collection of suitable samples while minimizing adverse physiological and behavioral responses.